Brassiere History
During recorded history, women have used a variety of garments and devices to cover, restrain, or elevate their breasts. Brassiere or bikini-like garments are depicted on some female athletes in the seventh century BC during the Minoan civilization era. Similar functionality was achieved by both outerwear and underwear.
From the 16th century onwards, the undergarments of wealthier women were dominated by the corset, which pushed the breasts upwards. In the latter part of the 19th century, clothing designers began experimenting with various alternatives to the corset, trying things like splitting the corset into multiple parts: a girdle-like restraining device for the lower torso, and devices that suspended the breasts from the shoulder for the upper torso.
By the early 20th century, garments more closely resembling contemporary bras had emerged, although large-scale commercial production did not occur until the 1930s. Since then, bras have replaced corsets (although some prefer camisoles), and bra manufacture and sale has become a multi-billion-dollar industry. Over time, the emphasis on bras has largely shifted from functionality to fashion.
In China during the Ming dynasty a form of foundation clothe complete with cups and straps drawn over shoulders and tied to the girth seam at the lower back called a dudou was in vogue among the rich women. (Oriental Clothing and Modern Fetishism, various authors, ed. Partho Shanner, 1996, Yeti, Hong Kong). While they first arose in the Ming Dynasty, were also common in the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911). In English they are known as 'stomach protectors' or 'tummy covers'
Construction and fit
A brassiere usually consists of two cups for breasts, a centre panel, a band running around the torso under the bust, and a shoulder strap for each side. Brassieres are typically made of a fabric, such as cotton or polyester. Spandex and lace are also often used for various parts of the bra. The cups for the breasts may be reinforced by underwires made of metal originally, but mainly plastic now. The bra is usually fastened with a hook fastener on the band, typically at the back. In some bras the fastener is in the front, between the cups. Others are pulled on over the head and have no fasteners at all.
Some bras contain padding, designed either to increase comfort, to conceal the nipples, or to make the breasts appear larger. Breast pads, commonly known as "falsies" or "cutlets", are sometimes worn between the breasts and the bra to create the illusion of a larger cup size. Push-up bras in particular are designed to enhance the cleavage and use padding and the cut of the pattern to achieve this effect.
Fitting
The backstrap (band) and cups should provide most of the support, rather than the shoulder straps, which are responsible for a number of health problems (see Mechanical principles, below).
* When viewed from the side, the strap that runs around the body should be horizontal, should not ride up the back, and should be firm but comfortable.
* The underwires at the front should lie flat against the rib cage (not the breast), along the infra-mammary fold, and should not dig in to the chest or the breasts, rub or poke out at the front.
* The breasts should be enclosed by the cups and there should be a smooth line where the fabric at the top of the cup ends.
* There should not be a ridge or any bulging over the top or sides of the cups, even with a low-cut style such as the balconette bra.
Mechanical principles
A pair of breasts can weigh several kilograms. For instance a pair of "D cup" breasts may weigh 15–23 pounds (7–10 kg),[8][verification needed] dependent on band and cup size. One of the principal functions of a bra is to elevate and "support" the breasts, that is, to raise them from their normal position lying against the chest wall. The bra's shoulder strap should bear little weight. This is considered the defining characteristic of the bra: supporting the weight from the back and shoulders, as opposed to lift from below (as corsets do).[1]
Over-reliance on the platform (backstrap) for support will lead to undue compression of the breasts, so much of the weight tends to be carried by the shoulder strap, particularly for larger breasts.[9] The major engineering weakness of the bra is that it acts as a pulley, transferring the weight of the breasts from the lower chest wall to higher structures such as the back, shoulder, neck, and head. This can result in pain and injury in those structures, especially for women with pendulous breasts.[10]
Size and measurement
The comfort and function of any given bra is highly dependent on the correct size and fit. A large range of sizes are available to cater to the wide variety in the size of women's breasts and bodies. Bra sizes typically vary in two ways: the volume of the cups that fit over the breast, and the length of the back strap that goes around the body. It is essential that the bra fit correctly in both of these dimensions. There is typically some ability to adjust the band size, since bras usually have three or four alternative sets of fastening hooks. The shoulder straps of a bra are also almost always adjustable. The size of women's breasts is often expressed in terms of her usual bra size.
Measurement systems
Although all bras are labeled by size, many women find that the only way to obtain a bra that fits properly and achieves the effect they want is by trial and error with each bra type, model and brand. This method is the most reliable.
Though many countries use the metric system, the majority of nations still use imperial units to determine the underband size of the bra itself.[citation needed]
There are several methods which may be used to provide an approximate size by taking measurements. However, bra sizing systems differ widely between countries, between manufacturers, and between brands and designs, which can create many problems. Many researchers have demonstrated that these problems arise because fit requires knowing the breast volume, not the body circumference (the distance around the body), which is what is actually measured. Although bra sizing uses the circumference to estimate the volume, this has been shown to be highly unreliable.
The size of a bra is commonly described by two values. The first is the band size (underband), a number based on the circumference of the chest under the bust, excluding the breasts. The second is the cup size given by a letter of the alphabet, and relating to the volume of the breasts themselves. For example, a 30D bra is for a 30-size band and a D-size cup. Cup sizes typically start with A, the smallest, and increase alphabetically. A double lettering system may also be used, e.g. DDD for F or AA for a size smaller than A.
Band size is usually determined by measuring body circumference under the breasts as tight as possible. A second measurement is a loose fit taken of the chest circumference over the fullest part of the breasts (overbust). The cup size can then be calculated with tables or a conversion tool from the difference between these two measurements.
The mean underband circumference in the UK is 34 inches (86 cm). For the overbust measurement, this is 40 inches (101 cm), for women 18–64 years.
Fitting difficulties
Women often find it difficult to find the correct bra size. To achieve perfect sizing consistently, a bra would have to be custom made, because a "one-size-fits-all" manufacturing process is fraught with difficulties. Breasts vary in the position on the chest, and in their diameters.
A number of stores have certified professional bra-fitters specialists. However, even bra fitters have been shown to be quite variable in their recommendations.Buying "off-the-shelf" or "online" bras is unwise if the buyer has never tried on the brand and type of bra that they are interested in buying.
Some bra manufacturers and distributors state that trying on and learning to recognize a proper fit is the best way to determine a correct bra size, much the same as with shoes. Some critics observe that measuring systems such as the one described above often lead to an incorrect size, most commonly too small in the cup, and too large in the band. For anyone, especially cup sizes larger than a D, one should get a professional fitting from the lingerie department of a clothing store or a specialty lingerie store.
Some women intentionally buy larger cups and pad them, while yet others buy smaller cups to give the appearance of being "full". Finally, the elastic properties of the band make band size highly unreliable, and in one study the label size was consistently different from the measured size. Fashion and image drive the bra market, and these factors often take precedence over comfort and function.
As already noted, there is no agreed standard across all manufacturers for measuring and specifying bra size. Obtaining the correct size is further complicated by the fact that the size and shape of a woman's breasts fluctuate during her menstrual cycle, and also with weight gain or loss. Even breathing can substantially alter the measurements. It is frequently stated, from the results of surveys, that between 70 and 100% of women are wearing incorrectly fitted bras. This may be partly due to a lack of understanding of how to correctly determine bra size; it may also be due to unusual or unexpectedly rapid growth in size brought on by pregnancy, weight gain, or medical conditions including virginal breast hypertrophy.
As breasts become larger, their shape and the distribution of the tissues within them changes, becoming ptotic and bulbous rather than conical. This makes measurements increasingly unreliable, especially for large breasts. Similarly the heavier a build the woman has, the more inaccurate the underbust measurement as the tape sinks into the flesh more easily. Finally, most women are asymmetrical (10% severely), with the left breast being larger in 62%, especially when the breasts are large.
Many of the health problems associated with bras are due to fitting problems and are discussed further below, under health problems. However, finding a comfortable fit is described as very difficult by many women, which has affected sales. Medical studies have also attested to the difficulty of getting a correct fit.
A wide range of styles of brassieres now exists, to be worn in a variety of situations, and with a variety of outergarments. For instance strapless, backless and multiway bra styles specialise in being invisible underneath less than full coverage garments whereas push up and plunge focus on shaping the bust and cleavage. The degree of shaping and coverage of the breasts varies between styles, as do functionality and fashion, fabric, and colour. Styles range from the purely utilitarian to the sensual. Others include various accessory structures such as padding and underwiring. Many bras will fall into more than one category, such as a maternity bra designed for facilitating access to the nipple, but that is also designed to provide support to heavier lactating breasts. Definitions are not always very accurate or exclusive (e.g. shelf bra). Sports bras have more recently been developed with the primary purpose of restricting breast movement.
Therapeutic role of the bra
Countering the aging process?
Anatomically, the breasts are non-rigid areas of glandular tissue, with few support structures, such as connective tissue. Breasts are composed of the mammary glands, which remain relatively constant throughout life, as well as the adipose tissue or fat tissue that surrounds the mammary glands. It is the amount and distribution of adipose tissue that leads to variations in breast size. In addition, the breasts contain internal ligaments, although their exact function as related to breast support is controversial. These ligaments, and the overlying skin (referred to as the dermal brassiere). help determine the resulting breast shape.
As the breasts mature, they fold over the lower attachment to the chest wall (infra-mammary fold), and their lower (inferior) surface lies against the chest wall when vertical. In popular culture, this maturation is referred to as "sagging" or "drooping", although plastic surgeons refer to it as ptosis, and recommend mastopexy (breast lift) for correction.
Although the exact mechanisms that determine breast shape and size remain largely unknown, it has long been claimed that this occurs because the normal anatomical support is inadequate, especially in older women and those with larger breasts. Hence the bra is often proposed as a means of providing artificial support, based on the presumption that the breasts cannot support themselves. Health professionals have, however, found no evidence to suggest that the bra changes the natural process of aging of the breasts. Bra manufacturers have also stated that bras only affect the shape of breasts while they are being worn.
Indeed, there are indications that wearing a bra may have an effect opposite to that which was intended. In a Japanese study, 11 women were measured wearing a standardised fitted bra for three months. They found that breasts became larger and lower, with the underbust measurement decreasing and the overbust increasing, while the lowest point of the breast moved downwards and outwards. The effect was more pronounced in larger-breasted women. This may be related to the particular bra chosen for the experiment. There was some improvement after changing to a different model. These findings were confirmed in a much larger French study of 250 women who exercised regularly and were followed by questionnaires and biometric measurements for a year after agreeing not to wear a bra. While there was some initial discomfort at the first evaluation, this gradually disappeared and by the end of the year nearly all the women had improved comfort compared to before the study. The measurements showed firmer, and more elevated and youthful breasts. One example of a woman who had breasts that were uncomfortably large, and who had improvement after two years of being without a bra is given.
While some may dispute the reasons why breasts change in shape with age and argue over whether or not the process can be delayed or reversed by wearing a bra, it is a natural process of bodily change. Health ethicists are concerned that plastic surgery and implants have altered our concept of what is "normal" and medicalised women's bodies by making a normal process a "disease."
Pain relief and comfort
Wearing a bra can offer relief of breast pain (mastodynia, mastalgia), particularly when women are performing strenuous physical activity or exercise. Indeed, the sports bra is an example of a bra which has been specifically designed for this purpose. An underwire bra can also help support breasts and keep them from bouncing (for example, during running), which is painful whether the breasts are large or small. Recently the requirement for a bra during exercise at all has been questioned following extensive studies on athletes and sportswomen.
In the specific case of larger breasts, the bra lifts the breasts away from the chest and can prevent two skin surfaces from rubbing together. Without the bra, maceration (loss of skin), intertrigo (rash) and fungal infections are possible. This does, however, depend upon a correctly fitted bra that performs as intended.
Cultural significance
Feminist comment
Many feminist writers have interpreted the bra as an example of how women's clothing has shaped and even deformed women's bodies to historically aesthetic ideals, or shaped them to conform to male expectations of what is desirable. Germaine Greer, for example, has often depicted bras as symbols of oppression, and it was views like these, considered radical by some, which perhaps gave rise to the urban legend of bra-burning ceremonies.
The bra as a fashion item
Breasts which have not undergone sagging, and which present a "pert" or "perky" appearance, are widely considered to be a marker of youth. Bras are therefore used, particularly within Western cultures which place great value upon youth, to promote what is considered a more desirable youthful appearance by lifting the breasts from their natural position. Furthermore, the modern bra is often more decorative than its predecessors, and therefore has become both a fashion statement and an adornment, and even an icon of sensuality.
The design of bras which aim to be fashionable, rather than functional, has been driven by changing fashions in outerwear, which has often dictated what could be worn underneath. Hence its shape has evolved through flat, round, pointed, conical, to "natural". Although in popular culture the invention of the bra is frequently attributed to men, in fact women have played a large part in bra design and manufacture, accounting for half of the patents filed.
Social pressures and trends
The average American woman today owns six bras, one of which is a strapless bra, and one in a color other than white. While reliable data are hard to obtain, it is thought that in the Western world about 90% of women wear bras. Some women wear bras based on modesty; others because they believe that it is part of their cultural norm and that not wearing a bra would lead to ostracism.
Bras are a relatively recent invention and are by no means universally worn around the world. In a cross-cultural study of bra size and cancer in 9,000 in the 1960s, a Harvard group found 93% of women wore bras (from 88% in the UK to 99% in Greece), but could not find enough women in Japan with bras to complete their study. In a number of cultures, women are quite comfortable to sunbathe or swim without any external support.
The prevalence of the bra, and perceived social expectation to wear one, does not imply that openly displaying it is encouraged. On the contrary, it is often not considered suitable to expose one's brassiere in public in western cultures, even partially, despite the fact that it is similar in appearance to the upper part of a bikini; to do so may be considered sexually provocative. However more young people are doing so, and bra straps are a common sight. Occasionally they may wear a bra as outerwear. An attractive bra can be considered partly as an accessory, just as a camisole might; more women, particularly in Eastern Europe, are now wearing translucent tops which reveal the underlying bra.
Even considering this relative cultural taboo, being seen in one's bra is still more socially acceptable than exposing the bare breasts, except at the beach. Indeed, women may choose to be seen in just a bra to make a specific point. For instance, bras have recently been used by organizations like breast cancer charities to raise money, either by sponsored walks or to sell bras owned or decorated by celebrities.
An increasing number of women and health professionals are challenging the traditional values that suggest that that bras are either medically necessary or required socially and are adopting bralessness (also known as brafreedom, or breast freedom). One survey found that 20% of women over 50 were not wearing bras (Farell-Beck and Gau p.171).
Some men also choose to wear bras. This may because they have large breasts due to a condition known as gynecomastia or simply obesity.
Many entertainers, actresses and members of the fashion industry have chosen not to wear bras. Susan Stranks who presented the Thames TV children's programme, Magpie between 1968 and 1974 chose not to wear a bra, even on camera. Another well known woman who regularly appears braless on TV is the presenter of BBC Gardening's Ground Force, Charlie Dimmock.
Health problems
Many of the statements about the benefits of bras are actually situations where they can make things worse, because the vast majority of women wear bras that are ill-fitting. For instance, rather than keeping the breasts away from the chest wall, bras that are too tight can actually compress them against the chest even further. This also pulls the upper thoracic and cervical vertebrae (spine) forward and down, interfering with back, shoulder and chest movement.
As they did with corsets, health professionals have also had concerns about the constricting effects of brassieres, although this varies considerably with design and the relative size of the bra and the breast. While at least sports bras do not usually cause any significant impairment in respiration, some bras may put pressure on nerves. Others believe that wearing a bra can actually increase the downward movement of the breasts with age, because the chest muscles (pectoralis) that support breasts are used less and atrophy from lack of use.
Myalgia
Use of a properly fitting bra is regularly recommended for reduction of mastalgia (breast pain) from exercise or other activities which cause the breasts to bounce, or for pain related to fibrocystic breast disease. A trial comparing the effectiveness of danazole versus use of a sports bra for treatment of mastalgia found the sports bra to be much more effective, and avoided the side effects experienced by 42% of those taking danazole. Sports bras were also found most effective at reducing mastalgia caused by exercise.
When the shoulder straps transfer most of the weight of the breast, a deep groove can be seen over the shoulder. Use of thin straps, such as spaghetti straps, can exert pressure on the trapezius muscle, resulting in temporary symptoms such as neck and shoulder pain; numbness and tingling in the arm; and headaches.
This seems more common in women whose activities require them to lift their arms above the shoulders. In a study of 100 women with painful shoulders, they were asked to not wear their bras for two weeks, by which time their symptoms had improved but returned within an hour of replacing the bra. 84% did not elevate their arms, and in these symptom relief was complete. Three years later, 79% of the women were still bra free; the remainder preferred pain to not wearing a bra. 16% worked in occupations requiring elevating their arms, and only achieved partial improvement. 13 of the 16 decided to become bra-free, and by six months all were cured.
Back pain is particularly common among large-breasted women who wear bras offering insufficient support. In extreme cases, such discomfort can lead to a woman seeking breast reduction surgery. In a study of 103 women seeking breast-reduction surgery (reduction mammaplasty) for pain, one woman never wore a bra, but of the remaining 102 all were wearing an incorrect bra size. The underband was too tight and the cup size too large. The larger the woman, the worse the fit. The result was a bra that compresses the breast and distorts it by compressing the breast against the skin of the chest wall.
Based on the their research, many physicians believe that bra size is meaningless, when breast volumes are calculated accurately. "The current popular system of determining bra size is inaccurate so often as to be useless. Add to this the many different styles of bras and the lack of standardization between brands, and one can see why finding a comfortable, well-fitting bra is more a matter of educated guesswork, trial, and error than of precise measurements."
Bra in other languages
* Spanish uses two different words: "sujetador" and "sostén", which derive from the synonyms "sujetar" and "sostener", meaning to hold. In Spain, "sostén" is generally considered dated. In some parts of Latin America, "brassiere" is used. In Argentina, the word 'corpiño' is used, and neither "sujetador" nor "sostén" are used at all.
* The German synonym, Büstenhalter, literally means "bust holder". In daily speech, however, it is commonly referred to as "BH".
* The counterpart in Esperanto is mamzono, literally meaning "breast-belt."
* The Dutch, the Swedish and Danes call it a "BH" (from "bustehouder", "bysthållare" and "brysteholdere", respectively), literally meaning "bust holder".
* In Czech and Slovak it is "podprsenka" and is difficult to translate it to English. The word consists of "pod-" (under), "-prs-" (breast) and "-enka" (ending for nouns in femininum), thus it could sound something like "underbreaster".
* In French, the most commonly used term is "Soutien-gorge".
* In Italian is "reggiseno", a less common term is "reggipetto".
Best pictures collection of Lingerie Girls.
From the 16th century onwards, the undergarments of wealthier women were dominated by the corset, which pushed the breasts upwards. In the latter part of the 19th century, clothing designers began experimenting with various alternatives to the corset, trying things like splitting the corset into multiple parts: a girdle-like restraining device for the lower torso, and devices that suspended the breasts from the shoulder for the upper torso.
By the early 20th century, garments more closely resembling contemporary bras had emerged, although large-scale commercial production did not occur until the 1930s. Since then, bras have replaced corsets (although some prefer camisoles), and bra manufacture and sale has become a multi-billion-dollar industry. Over time, the emphasis on bras has largely shifted from functionality to fashion.
In China during the Ming dynasty a form of foundation clothe complete with cups and straps drawn over shoulders and tied to the girth seam at the lower back called a dudou was in vogue among the rich women. (Oriental Clothing and Modern Fetishism, various authors, ed. Partho Shanner, 1996, Yeti, Hong Kong). While they first arose in the Ming Dynasty, were also common in the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911). In English they are known as 'stomach protectors' or 'tummy covers'
Construction and fit
A brassiere usually consists of two cups for breasts, a centre panel, a band running around the torso under the bust, and a shoulder strap for each side. Brassieres are typically made of a fabric, such as cotton or polyester. Spandex and lace are also often used for various parts of the bra. The cups for the breasts may be reinforced by underwires made of metal originally, but mainly plastic now. The bra is usually fastened with a hook fastener on the band, typically at the back. In some bras the fastener is in the front, between the cups. Others are pulled on over the head and have no fasteners at all.
Some bras contain padding, designed either to increase comfort, to conceal the nipples, or to make the breasts appear larger. Breast pads, commonly known as "falsies" or "cutlets", are sometimes worn between the breasts and the bra to create the illusion of a larger cup size. Push-up bras in particular are designed to enhance the cleavage and use padding and the cut of the pattern to achieve this effect.
Fitting
The backstrap (band) and cups should provide most of the support, rather than the shoulder straps, which are responsible for a number of health problems (see Mechanical principles, below).
* When viewed from the side, the strap that runs around the body should be horizontal, should not ride up the back, and should be firm but comfortable.
* The underwires at the front should lie flat against the rib cage (not the breast), along the infra-mammary fold, and should not dig in to the chest or the breasts, rub or poke out at the front.
* The breasts should be enclosed by the cups and there should be a smooth line where the fabric at the top of the cup ends.
* There should not be a ridge or any bulging over the top or sides of the cups, even with a low-cut style such as the balconette bra.
Mechanical principles
A pair of breasts can weigh several kilograms. For instance a pair of "D cup" breasts may weigh 15–23 pounds (7–10 kg),[8][verification needed] dependent on band and cup size. One of the principal functions of a bra is to elevate and "support" the breasts, that is, to raise them from their normal position lying against the chest wall. The bra's shoulder strap should bear little weight. This is considered the defining characteristic of the bra: supporting the weight from the back and shoulders, as opposed to lift from below (as corsets do).[1]
Over-reliance on the platform (backstrap) for support will lead to undue compression of the breasts, so much of the weight tends to be carried by the shoulder strap, particularly for larger breasts.[9] The major engineering weakness of the bra is that it acts as a pulley, transferring the weight of the breasts from the lower chest wall to higher structures such as the back, shoulder, neck, and head. This can result in pain and injury in those structures, especially for women with pendulous breasts.[10]
Size and measurement
The comfort and function of any given bra is highly dependent on the correct size and fit. A large range of sizes are available to cater to the wide variety in the size of women's breasts and bodies. Bra sizes typically vary in two ways: the volume of the cups that fit over the breast, and the length of the back strap that goes around the body. It is essential that the bra fit correctly in both of these dimensions. There is typically some ability to adjust the band size, since bras usually have three or four alternative sets of fastening hooks. The shoulder straps of a bra are also almost always adjustable. The size of women's breasts is often expressed in terms of her usual bra size.
Measurement systems
Although all bras are labeled by size, many women find that the only way to obtain a bra that fits properly and achieves the effect they want is by trial and error with each bra type, model and brand. This method is the most reliable.
Though many countries use the metric system, the majority of nations still use imperial units to determine the underband size of the bra itself.[citation needed]
There are several methods which may be used to provide an approximate size by taking measurements. However, bra sizing systems differ widely between countries, between manufacturers, and between brands and designs, which can create many problems. Many researchers have demonstrated that these problems arise because fit requires knowing the breast volume, not the body circumference (the distance around the body), which is what is actually measured. Although bra sizing uses the circumference to estimate the volume, this has been shown to be highly unreliable.
The size of a bra is commonly described by two values. The first is the band size (underband), a number based on the circumference of the chest under the bust, excluding the breasts. The second is the cup size given by a letter of the alphabet, and relating to the volume of the breasts themselves. For example, a 30D bra is for a 30-size band and a D-size cup. Cup sizes typically start with A, the smallest, and increase alphabetically. A double lettering system may also be used, e.g. DDD for F or AA for a size smaller than A.
Band size is usually determined by measuring body circumference under the breasts as tight as possible. A second measurement is a loose fit taken of the chest circumference over the fullest part of the breasts (overbust). The cup size can then be calculated with tables or a conversion tool from the difference between these two measurements.
The mean underband circumference in the UK is 34 inches (86 cm). For the overbust measurement, this is 40 inches (101 cm), for women 18–64 years.
Fitting difficulties
Women often find it difficult to find the correct bra size. To achieve perfect sizing consistently, a bra would have to be custom made, because a "one-size-fits-all" manufacturing process is fraught with difficulties. Breasts vary in the position on the chest, and in their diameters.
A number of stores have certified professional bra-fitters specialists. However, even bra fitters have been shown to be quite variable in their recommendations.Buying "off-the-shelf" or "online" bras is unwise if the buyer has never tried on the brand and type of bra that they are interested in buying.
Some bra manufacturers and distributors state that trying on and learning to recognize a proper fit is the best way to determine a correct bra size, much the same as with shoes. Some critics observe that measuring systems such as the one described above often lead to an incorrect size, most commonly too small in the cup, and too large in the band. For anyone, especially cup sizes larger than a D, one should get a professional fitting from the lingerie department of a clothing store or a specialty lingerie store.
Some women intentionally buy larger cups and pad them, while yet others buy smaller cups to give the appearance of being "full". Finally, the elastic properties of the band make band size highly unreliable, and in one study the label size was consistently different from the measured size. Fashion and image drive the bra market, and these factors often take precedence over comfort and function.
As already noted, there is no agreed standard across all manufacturers for measuring and specifying bra size. Obtaining the correct size is further complicated by the fact that the size and shape of a woman's breasts fluctuate during her menstrual cycle, and also with weight gain or loss. Even breathing can substantially alter the measurements. It is frequently stated, from the results of surveys, that between 70 and 100% of women are wearing incorrectly fitted bras. This may be partly due to a lack of understanding of how to correctly determine bra size; it may also be due to unusual or unexpectedly rapid growth in size brought on by pregnancy, weight gain, or medical conditions including virginal breast hypertrophy.
As breasts become larger, their shape and the distribution of the tissues within them changes, becoming ptotic and bulbous rather than conical. This makes measurements increasingly unreliable, especially for large breasts. Similarly the heavier a build the woman has, the more inaccurate the underbust measurement as the tape sinks into the flesh more easily. Finally, most women are asymmetrical (10% severely), with the left breast being larger in 62%, especially when the breasts are large.
Many of the health problems associated with bras are due to fitting problems and are discussed further below, under health problems. However, finding a comfortable fit is described as very difficult by many women, which has affected sales. Medical studies have also attested to the difficulty of getting a correct fit.
A wide range of styles of brassieres now exists, to be worn in a variety of situations, and with a variety of outergarments. For instance strapless, backless and multiway bra styles specialise in being invisible underneath less than full coverage garments whereas push up and plunge focus on shaping the bust and cleavage. The degree of shaping and coverage of the breasts varies between styles, as do functionality and fashion, fabric, and colour. Styles range from the purely utilitarian to the sensual. Others include various accessory structures such as padding and underwiring. Many bras will fall into more than one category, such as a maternity bra designed for facilitating access to the nipple, but that is also designed to provide support to heavier lactating breasts. Definitions are not always very accurate or exclusive (e.g. shelf bra). Sports bras have more recently been developed with the primary purpose of restricting breast movement.
Therapeutic role of the bra
Countering the aging process?
Anatomically, the breasts are non-rigid areas of glandular tissue, with few support structures, such as connective tissue. Breasts are composed of the mammary glands, which remain relatively constant throughout life, as well as the adipose tissue or fat tissue that surrounds the mammary glands. It is the amount and distribution of adipose tissue that leads to variations in breast size. In addition, the breasts contain internal ligaments, although their exact function as related to breast support is controversial. These ligaments, and the overlying skin (referred to as the dermal brassiere). help determine the resulting breast shape.
As the breasts mature, they fold over the lower attachment to the chest wall (infra-mammary fold), and their lower (inferior) surface lies against the chest wall when vertical. In popular culture, this maturation is referred to as "sagging" or "drooping", although plastic surgeons refer to it as ptosis, and recommend mastopexy (breast lift) for correction.
Although the exact mechanisms that determine breast shape and size remain largely unknown, it has long been claimed that this occurs because the normal anatomical support is inadequate, especially in older women and those with larger breasts. Hence the bra is often proposed as a means of providing artificial support, based on the presumption that the breasts cannot support themselves. Health professionals have, however, found no evidence to suggest that the bra changes the natural process of aging of the breasts. Bra manufacturers have also stated that bras only affect the shape of breasts while they are being worn.
Indeed, there are indications that wearing a bra may have an effect opposite to that which was intended. In a Japanese study, 11 women were measured wearing a standardised fitted bra for three months. They found that breasts became larger and lower, with the underbust measurement decreasing and the overbust increasing, while the lowest point of the breast moved downwards and outwards. The effect was more pronounced in larger-breasted women. This may be related to the particular bra chosen for the experiment. There was some improvement after changing to a different model. These findings were confirmed in a much larger French study of 250 women who exercised regularly and were followed by questionnaires and biometric measurements for a year after agreeing not to wear a bra. While there was some initial discomfort at the first evaluation, this gradually disappeared and by the end of the year nearly all the women had improved comfort compared to before the study. The measurements showed firmer, and more elevated and youthful breasts. One example of a woman who had breasts that were uncomfortably large, and who had improvement after two years of being without a bra is given.
While some may dispute the reasons why breasts change in shape with age and argue over whether or not the process can be delayed or reversed by wearing a bra, it is a natural process of bodily change. Health ethicists are concerned that plastic surgery and implants have altered our concept of what is "normal" and medicalised women's bodies by making a normal process a "disease."
Pain relief and comfort
Wearing a bra can offer relief of breast pain (mastodynia, mastalgia), particularly when women are performing strenuous physical activity or exercise. Indeed, the sports bra is an example of a bra which has been specifically designed for this purpose. An underwire bra can also help support breasts and keep them from bouncing (for example, during running), which is painful whether the breasts are large or small. Recently the requirement for a bra during exercise at all has been questioned following extensive studies on athletes and sportswomen.
In the specific case of larger breasts, the bra lifts the breasts away from the chest and can prevent two skin surfaces from rubbing together. Without the bra, maceration (loss of skin), intertrigo (rash) and fungal infections are possible. This does, however, depend upon a correctly fitted bra that performs as intended.
Cultural significance
Feminist comment
Many feminist writers have interpreted the bra as an example of how women's clothing has shaped and even deformed women's bodies to historically aesthetic ideals, or shaped them to conform to male expectations of what is desirable. Germaine Greer, for example, has often depicted bras as symbols of oppression, and it was views like these, considered radical by some, which perhaps gave rise to the urban legend of bra-burning ceremonies.
The bra as a fashion item
Breasts which have not undergone sagging, and which present a "pert" or "perky" appearance, are widely considered to be a marker of youth. Bras are therefore used, particularly within Western cultures which place great value upon youth, to promote what is considered a more desirable youthful appearance by lifting the breasts from their natural position. Furthermore, the modern bra is often more decorative than its predecessors, and therefore has become both a fashion statement and an adornment, and even an icon of sensuality.
The design of bras which aim to be fashionable, rather than functional, has been driven by changing fashions in outerwear, which has often dictated what could be worn underneath. Hence its shape has evolved through flat, round, pointed, conical, to "natural". Although in popular culture the invention of the bra is frequently attributed to men, in fact women have played a large part in bra design and manufacture, accounting for half of the patents filed.
Social pressures and trends
The average American woman today owns six bras, one of which is a strapless bra, and one in a color other than white. While reliable data are hard to obtain, it is thought that in the Western world about 90% of women wear bras. Some women wear bras based on modesty; others because they believe that it is part of their cultural norm and that not wearing a bra would lead to ostracism.
Bras are a relatively recent invention and are by no means universally worn around the world. In a cross-cultural study of bra size and cancer in 9,000 in the 1960s, a Harvard group found 93% of women wore bras (from 88% in the UK to 99% in Greece), but could not find enough women in Japan with bras to complete their study. In a number of cultures, women are quite comfortable to sunbathe or swim without any external support.
The prevalence of the bra, and perceived social expectation to wear one, does not imply that openly displaying it is encouraged. On the contrary, it is often not considered suitable to expose one's brassiere in public in western cultures, even partially, despite the fact that it is similar in appearance to the upper part of a bikini; to do so may be considered sexually provocative. However more young people are doing so, and bra straps are a common sight. Occasionally they may wear a bra as outerwear. An attractive bra can be considered partly as an accessory, just as a camisole might; more women, particularly in Eastern Europe, are now wearing translucent tops which reveal the underlying bra.
Even considering this relative cultural taboo, being seen in one's bra is still more socially acceptable than exposing the bare breasts, except at the beach. Indeed, women may choose to be seen in just a bra to make a specific point. For instance, bras have recently been used by organizations like breast cancer charities to raise money, either by sponsored walks or to sell bras owned or decorated by celebrities.
An increasing number of women and health professionals are challenging the traditional values that suggest that that bras are either medically necessary or required socially and are adopting bralessness (also known as brafreedom, or breast freedom). One survey found that 20% of women over 50 were not wearing bras (Farell-Beck and Gau p.171).
Some men also choose to wear bras. This may because they have large breasts due to a condition known as gynecomastia or simply obesity.
Many entertainers, actresses and members of the fashion industry have chosen not to wear bras. Susan Stranks who presented the Thames TV children's programme, Magpie between 1968 and 1974 chose not to wear a bra, even on camera. Another well known woman who regularly appears braless on TV is the presenter of BBC Gardening's Ground Force, Charlie Dimmock.
Health problems
Many of the statements about the benefits of bras are actually situations where they can make things worse, because the vast majority of women wear bras that are ill-fitting. For instance, rather than keeping the breasts away from the chest wall, bras that are too tight can actually compress them against the chest even further. This also pulls the upper thoracic and cervical vertebrae (spine) forward and down, interfering with back, shoulder and chest movement.
As they did with corsets, health professionals have also had concerns about the constricting effects of brassieres, although this varies considerably with design and the relative size of the bra and the breast. While at least sports bras do not usually cause any significant impairment in respiration, some bras may put pressure on nerves. Others believe that wearing a bra can actually increase the downward movement of the breasts with age, because the chest muscles (pectoralis) that support breasts are used less and atrophy from lack of use.
Myalgia
Use of a properly fitting bra is regularly recommended for reduction of mastalgia (breast pain) from exercise or other activities which cause the breasts to bounce, or for pain related to fibrocystic breast disease. A trial comparing the effectiveness of danazole versus use of a sports bra for treatment of mastalgia found the sports bra to be much more effective, and avoided the side effects experienced by 42% of those taking danazole. Sports bras were also found most effective at reducing mastalgia caused by exercise.
When the shoulder straps transfer most of the weight of the breast, a deep groove can be seen over the shoulder. Use of thin straps, such as spaghetti straps, can exert pressure on the trapezius muscle, resulting in temporary symptoms such as neck and shoulder pain; numbness and tingling in the arm; and headaches.
This seems more common in women whose activities require them to lift their arms above the shoulders. In a study of 100 women with painful shoulders, they were asked to not wear their bras for two weeks, by which time their symptoms had improved but returned within an hour of replacing the bra. 84% did not elevate their arms, and in these symptom relief was complete. Three years later, 79% of the women were still bra free; the remainder preferred pain to not wearing a bra. 16% worked in occupations requiring elevating their arms, and only achieved partial improvement. 13 of the 16 decided to become bra-free, and by six months all were cured.
Back pain is particularly common among large-breasted women who wear bras offering insufficient support. In extreme cases, such discomfort can lead to a woman seeking breast reduction surgery. In a study of 103 women seeking breast-reduction surgery (reduction mammaplasty) for pain, one woman never wore a bra, but of the remaining 102 all were wearing an incorrect bra size. The underband was too tight and the cup size too large. The larger the woman, the worse the fit. The result was a bra that compresses the breast and distorts it by compressing the breast against the skin of the chest wall.
Based on the their research, many physicians believe that bra size is meaningless, when breast volumes are calculated accurately. "The current popular system of determining bra size is inaccurate so often as to be useless. Add to this the many different styles of bras and the lack of standardization between brands, and one can see why finding a comfortable, well-fitting bra is more a matter of educated guesswork, trial, and error than of precise measurements."
Bra in other languages
* Spanish uses two different words: "sujetador" and "sostén", which derive from the synonyms "sujetar" and "sostener", meaning to hold. In Spain, "sostén" is generally considered dated. In some parts of Latin America, "brassiere" is used. In Argentina, the word 'corpiño' is used, and neither "sujetador" nor "sostén" are used at all.
* The German synonym, Büstenhalter, literally means "bust holder". In daily speech, however, it is commonly referred to as "BH".
* The counterpart in Esperanto is mamzono, literally meaning "breast-belt."
* The Dutch, the Swedish and Danes call it a "BH" (from "bustehouder", "bysthållare" and "brysteholdere", respectively), literally meaning "bust holder".
* In Czech and Slovak it is "podprsenka" and is difficult to translate it to English. The word consists of "pod-" (under), "-prs-" (breast) and "-enka" (ending for nouns in femininum), thus it could sound something like "underbreaster".
* In French, the most commonly used term is "Soutien-gorge".
* In Italian is "reggiseno", a less common term is "reggipetto".
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